This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Summary of social outcomes across studies ordered by sub-category, then by standardized measure. Specifically, this review sought to systematically identify, summarize, and evaluate studies assessing psychosocial outcomes from owning an assistance dog (including service, guide, hearing, and/or medical alert or response dogs) with measures tested for reliability and validity among individuals with physical disabilities. The deprived monkeys became unable to integrate socially, unable to form attachments, and were severely emotionally disturbed. However, these are relatively new categories of assistance dogs [2], many of which may also be self-trained [62], and it appears that emerging research on this population has centered on medical benefits [63] rather than psychosocial. [16] found higher emotional functioning in those with a mobility or medical service dog compared to a control group. In fact, positive findings were identified in all domains and sub-domains of psychosocial health and wellbeing. Ten years from now, students may very well read in their textbooks about a new treatment to help people with Parkinsons disease. Table 3 summarizes psychological outcomes across studies in terms of general psychological health, emotional health, mental health, and self-evaluation. In particular, not only did studies vary largely in terms of sample size, but they also varied in the manner in which statistical analyses were conducted. Evaluation of animal models of neurobehavioral disorders Studies were eligible for inclusion if they met the following criteria: (1) The study population consisted of current or prospective owners/handlers of an assistance dog (including service, guide, hearing, and/or medical alert or response dogs) with a physical disability or chronic condition in which the assistance dog is trained to do work or perform tasks directly related to the disability or condition [4]; (2) The study collected original data on the effect of the assistance dog on their handler with at least one psychosocial outcome, including those quantifying aspects of mental health, social health, and health-related quality of life; and (3) The psychosocial outcome(s) were collected via a standardized measure tested for validity and reliability. Compared to those on the waitlist, individuals with an assistance dog report better psychosocial functioning and wellbeing [16, 17]. However, increasingly modern methods allow the 3R principle of reducing, refining and replacing animal experiments to be put into practice . The most notable weaknesses included a lack of adequate reporting in the methodological sections, which not only limits interpretation of findings but prevents reproducibility. The most commonly studied type of assistance dog was mobility service dogs, followed by hearing dogs. Conducting periodic systematic reviews of this research is crucial to both disseminate knowledge as well as to identify knowledge gaps for future studies [20]. The only other positive outcome was from Allen et al. Secondly, many studies did not report sufficient detail in results in terms of estimates of variability and effect size. Jamie Greer, Part of the justification for why nonhuman animals are studied in psychology has to do with the fact of evolution. For example one could not look at the effects of maternal deprivation by removing infants from their mothers or conduct isolation experiment on humans in the way that has been done on other species. The search strategy was adapted to the other databases, including mapping terms to each databases thesaurus or prescribed vocabulary, as appropriate. While there are no legal requirements specifying that an assistance dog must be certified, registered, or receive any specialized training to receive public access rights, independent organizations such as ADI, the International Association of Assistance Dog Partners (IAADP), and the International Guide Dog Federation (IGDF) define a set of minimum training and behavior standards for public access that help guide the assistance dog industry. The principle disadvantage with animal experiments is the problem of generalisability. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they assessed outcomes from guide, hearing, medical, or mobility service dogs, if they collected original data on handlers psychosocial functioning, and if the outcome was measured quantitatively with a validated, standardized measure. A more recent systematic review published by Winkle and colleagues in 2012 [9] summarized 12 published quantitative studies on both standardized and nonstandardized outcomes following mobility service dog placement (omitting guide dogs, hearing dogs, and unpublished theses). Probably not, in much the same way that nonhuman research that permitted a significant human study to be conducted is rarely described in todays textbooks. Therefore, in the cases where positive outcomes were reported in these studies, it is unknown what amount of time with an assistance dog the finding was associated with (and therefore difficult to compare to findings from other studies). Future research should focus on assessing outcomes from these medical alert and response assistance dogs and how their roles may be similar or different than mobility, guide, or hearing dogs. Second, only 63% of studies described inclusion and/or exclusion criteria of recruited participants, and some studies did not report all demographic or disability characteristics of participants. Finally, its important to note that animal research in the United States is very tightly regulated by a series of federal and state laws, policies and regulations, dating back to the landmark Animal Welfare Act from 1966. However, results suggested that for most outcomes, having an assistance dog had no effect on psychosocial health and wellbeing. Experiments can take place to determine if a product or idea will work as intended. Most studies (24/27; 89%) assessed outcomes from a single type of assistance dog (e.g. Studies compared outcomes of individuals with an assistance dog to before they received the dog (six longitudinal studies), to participants on the waitlist to receive an assistance dog (five longitudinal and seven cross-sectional studies), or to participants without an assistance dog (eight cross-sectional studies). The roles of dogs to assist in improving human wellbeing continue to expand. Lorenz, animal studies of attachment: Lorenz's research investigates the Evolutionary Explanation of attachment suggesting that infants are pre-programmed to form an attachment from the second that they are born. In terms of general vitality and energy, four studies used the SF-36 to measure the effect of having an assistance dog on the vitality domain. Three studies using SF-36 failed to find significant effects on the social domain; Lundqvist et al. However, due to large heterogeneity and poor reporting of effect sizes and raw data, a narrative synthesis of findings in comparison to unpublished theses and published articles was pursued instead. This systematic review identified 24 articles containing 27 studies that assessed a psychosocial outcome of having an assistance dog (guide dog, hearing dog, mobility service dog, or medical service dog). Therefore, detailed descriptions of study populations is critical for helping the field understand for whom assistance dogs are beneficial regarding social, emotional, or psychological health and under what contexts or conditions [74]. The replicated measures identified in this review can serve as a basis for future researchers to collate the existing literature when making assessment choices. Further, as researchers increasingly incorporate standardized outcome measures into this research, collating and pooling findings will allow researchers to compare outcomes across different populations and interventions while estimating the magnitude of effects across domains. PLOS is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) corporation, #C2354500, based in San Francisco, California, US. Using the Psychosocial Impact of Assistive Devices Scale [PIADS; 54], Vincent et al. Of 27 studies, 18 (67%) reported outcomes a standardized measure of social health with a total of 18 different standardized measures. Thorough reporting in terms of the magnitude and variability of effects observed will allow researchers to make informed comparisons across populations and interventions and conduct critically needed meta-analyses in the field. However, methodological rigor did not significantly differ by study design (t(25) = -0.940, p = 0.356). In the case of disagreements, inclusion or exclusion was resolved by discussion and consultation with a third independent reviewer (author MO). However, only 44% (12/27) of studies reported statistical values (e.g. Why Kids With Pets Are Better Off | Psychology Today Tissue cultures cannot develop depression, alco- holism, autism, learning disorders, memory impairments, aggressive behavior, social abnormalities, or other psychologically relevant prob- lems. As a final consideration, it is possible that assistance dogs may not confer significant psychosocial benefits as quantified by some of the standardized measures used. For example, organizations that place assistance dogs may have housing, familial, physical, or even financial requirements for potential recipients that should be subsequently reported in the manuscript to fully define the population. For example, we know what the connections are between the amygdala and other brain regions, but how does activity in the amygdala affect brain functioning? However, even within a single category, there are differences in assistance dog breeds, temperaments, and training that may significantly contribute to observed variance across studies. However, almost all positive findings were accompanied by a null finding using the same or similar standardized measure in a different study. Articles were published from 19942018 with publication dates in the 1990s (5), 2000s (9), and 2010s (10) indicating an increasing publication rate on this topic over time. He is currently the chair of APAs Committee on Animal Research and Ethics. The three Rs are: Reduction, Refinement . A total of 254 records were screened via full text, of which 230 were excluded. A health information specialist (JY) constructed and executed comprehensive search strategies in six electronic databases: MEDLINE (PubMed platform), Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) (EBSCOhost platform), ERIC (EBSCOHost), Web of Science Core Collection (Web of Science), PsycINFO (EBSCOhost), and PsycARTICLES (EBSCOhost). First, there may be ceiling effects present whereby individuals are functioning at initially healthy levels of the measured construct (e.g., depression, self-esteem) prior to receiving an assistance dog and thus may not significantly improve on these measures. APA 2023 registration is now open! In these studies, positive findings (i.e., better social functioning in those with an assistance dog compared to a control group) may be partially attributed to an unmeasured variable driving the group difference [77]. Pet-Owning Kids Are Generally Better Off Other countries where studies took place included Canada (3), Japan (2), New Zealand (1), and Sweden (1). Hall et al. Samples ranged from 15% male to 85% male, with an average of 42% male participants across all studies. Regarding social participation, 14 comparisons were made in which 4/14 were significant (29%). Finally, in discussion sections, most studies (22/27; 81%) stated at least two limitations of their study. The other five studies found no effect of having a mobility service dog [32], hearing dog [29, 32], or guide dog [38] on life satisfaction using SWLS. In the self-evaluation subcategory, 5/19 (26%) outcomes found a significant effect of having an assistance dog on standardized measures of self-esteem, self-concept, and other measures of self-evaluation. Using the Profile of Mood States Scale [POMS; 51], Guest found increased self-reported vigor 3- and 12-months after receiving a hearing dog and less fatigue 3-months after receiving a hearing dog. [35] found increased SF-36 health transition scores after 3-months of having a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog, while Guest [13] found an increase in general health 3-months after receiving a hearing dog using the 30-item General Health Questionnaire [GHQ-30; 48]. The use of animal models in behavioural neuroscience research An important question for the field moving forward will be to determine for whom an assistance dog may confer the most significant psychosocial health benefits for, and under what contexts or conditions. Importantly, unpublished theses had a similar average sample size as published studies, with similar power to detect effects compared to published studies. Animal studies in psychology. In one example, four studies included in this review failed to find significant results in comparisons of depression using the CES-D [28, 3941]. Opinion: Why research using animals is important in psychology He is the former associate director for research at the Primate Center, a past president of the American Society of Primatologists, a recipient of the Patricia R. Barchas Award in Sociophysiology from the American Psychosomatic Society, a fellow of several professional societies, and in 2012, he received the Distinguished Primatologist Award from the American Society of Primatologists. Overall, studies addressed an average of 62% of methodological consideration items with a range of 23% (3/13) to 100% (15/15; denominators were variable as there were two items not applicable to all study designs). Human participants in these studies included those with hearing or visual impairments, diabetes, and seizure disorders. Authors JG and KR independently coded 20% of the included articles to establish adequate inter-rater reliability (alpha = 0.822). Using the Reintegration to Normal Living Index [RNLI; 59], Hubert found improvements in the ability to return to normal life after 7-months with a mobility service dog while Vincent et al. Naturalistic Observation: Definition, Examples, Pros and Cons While results described positive effects of service dogs in terms of social, psychological, and functional benefits for their handlers, it was concluded that all 12 of the studies had weak study designs with limitations including lack of comparison groups, inadequate description of the service dog intervention, and nonstandardized outcome measures. Future research will benefit from stronger methodological rigor and reporting to account for heterogeneity in both humans and assistance dogs as well as continued high-quality replication. The results of Harlow's experiments indicated that this early maternal deprivation led to serious and irreversible emotional damage. This systematic review summarized the current state of knowledge regarding the effects of owning an assistance dog (including service, guide, hearing, and/or medical alert or response dogs) on standardized outcomes of psychosocial health and wellbeing of individuals with disabilities. A study protocol was designed a-priori to define the search strategy, inclusion and exclusion criteria, and items for data extraction. One author argued that an important methodological issue is the absence of appropriate measures in measuring the effect of an assistance dog on recipients lives [32]. Guide dogs were only assessed in four studies (all of which were cross-sectional, and one of which was an unpublished thesis [46]). Of 15 cross-sectional studies that surveyed individuals who owned assistance dogs for variable periods of time, 4/15 studies (27%) considered length of time of assistance dog ownership as a potential explanatory or moderating variable in analyses. Register for the early bird rate. Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work. To compare methodological rigor by study design, an independent t-test was used to compare mean scores across longitudinal and cross-sectional designs. The specific aims were to (1) describe the key characteristics of studies (2) evaluate the methodological rigor of studies (3) summarize outcomes. When human studies are presented, there is rarely discussion of the basic animal research that enabled those studies to be done. The five studies which found that pet owners were less depressed had, on average, many fewer participants (Mean = 401 subjects ) than the studies that found no difference in depression rates (Mean . In results sections, 15/21 studies with a control or comparison condition (71%) demonstrated that participants in each condition were comparable on demographic variables. To achieve the first aim of the reviewto describe study characteristicswe extracted several features of from each study and article (Table 1). Why is animal psychology important? In addition, the scientist must justify the numbers of animals that they use, insuring they are using the smallest number possible. Limitations and Benefits of Psychological Research on Animals Many people see animal testing as a cruel and inhumane practice. PLOS ONE promises fair, rigorous peer review, Regarding emotional health, 7/15 (46%) outcomes were significant across group or condition. Another potential reason for the inconsistencies in findings from studies assessing the same construct is disparities across standardized measures. Importantly, only a few comparisons were made in the negative direction (2%) indicating that there is limited reason to believe that acquiring an assistance dog is associated with worse functioning. Further, as publication bias and the file-drawer effect is an often referenced weakness of the HAI literature [22], two dissertation and thesis databases and abstracts of two conferences were searched for unpublished studies. The authors concluded that although results are promising, conclusions drawn from the results must be considered with caution [9]. The latter offers a more cynical take on animal welfare, namely that. Future research is necessary to determine if in fact some measures are inappropriate to measure change following an assistance dog, which may be addressed using interviewing and focus group techniques among assistance dog handlers. For full functionality of this site, please enable JavaScript. This research aimed to conduct a systematic assessment of the current state of knowledge regarding the potential benefits of assistance dogs on standardized outcomes of the health and wellbeing of individuals with disabilities. The most common provider organizations represented were Canine Companions for Independence (CCI; six mobility service dog studies), Paws with a Cause (four mobility service dog studies), and Hearing Dogs for Deaf People (HDDP; four hearing dog studies). Using the CHART, both Milan [41] and Davis [44] found no group differences in social integration among those with a mobility service dog control groups. In the economic domain of the CHART, which assesses socio-economic independence, Davis [44] again found that those with a mobility service dog reported worse economic functioning than controls while two mobility dog studies reported null findings [30, 41]. As with every experimental methodology, there are disadvantages to using animals in experiments. Our search procedure identified 24 articles containing 27 studies assessing psychosocial outcomes from a wide variety of human and assistance dog populations. To summarize study outcomes, extracted items included statistical comparisons for any psychosocial outcomes from included studies. The most commonly used measure was the Craig Handicap Assessment and Reporting Technique [CHART; 58] which assesses how people with disabilities function as active members of their communities. Seven studies (26%) had sample sizes less than or equal to N = 20, all of which were longitudinal. In addition, we can better understand fundamental processes because of the precise control enabled by animal research (e.g., living environments, experimental conditions, etc.). Therefore, future studies are warranted that specifically assess health and wellbeing using validated parent-proxy or self-report measures to fully understand the potential effects that assistance dogs can have on children and adolescents with disabilities. Brought to you by Sciencing Unnecessary Cruelty Animal rights advocates argue that testing on animals is cruel and unnecessary. Will this monkey study, which enabled such a discovery to be made, be described? Using a new technique, it is now possible to temporarily inactivate the amygdala in a monkey and see how other brain areas (including those that are not directly connected to the amygdala) change their activity (Grayson et al., 2016). This poses a severe threat to the validity of findings as group differences in outcomes could be caused by underlying differences in certain demographics or characteristics and cannot be confidently attributed to the presence of the assistance dog. Unfortunately, many introductory textbooks don't give the full picture of animal research. Most studies reported adequate detail on participant demographics such as age and sex or gender identity (23/27; 85%) as well as disability characteristics such as primary diagnoses or severity (22/27; 81%). If small rodents are incapable of feeding, they will die within hours - it is highly likely that many substances would not be toxic if a simple sugar solution was injected. Oversight and inspection of facilities is provided by the U.S. Dept. Animal Studies of Attachment: Lorenz and Harlow | Psychology - tutor2u Table 4 summarizes the social outcomes across studies within the sub-categories of general social functioning, loneliness, and social participation. However, more than half of all studies (16/27; 59%) had sample sizes greater than or equal to N = 50. The process of animal model building, development and evaluation has rarely been addressed systematically, despite the long history of using animal models in the investigation of neuropsychiatric disorders and behavioral dysfunctions. If youve taken an introductory psychology class, then you have probably read about seminal psychological research that was done with animals: Skinners rats, Pavlovs dogs, Harlows monkeys. [15] found improvements to daily work activities 3- and 12-months after receiving mobility service dog (but not in self-care or dealing with life events). The final sample included 24 articles (12 peer-reviewed publications, 12 unpublished theses/dissertations) containing 27 individual studies. Methodological rigor also did not significantly correlate with year of publication (r = 0.327, p = 0.096) nor total sample size (r = 0.258, p = 0.194). [15] found no difference in self-esteem, adequacy, or competency over 12-months following receiving a mobility service dog. We can also ask and answer certain questions that would be difficult or impossible to do with humans. The discussion section aims to review the findings from each aim and to provide targeted suggestions for future research. In fact, nine new articles were identified (three theses, six publications) that had been published since the last review on this topic in 2012 [9]. Limitations of Animal Tests - Humane Society International However, inclusion and exclusion criteria were less commonly described (17/27; 63%). Cross-sectional studies had the highest sample sizes with an average sample size of N = 126 +/- 73 participants (range of N = 38316), while longitudinal studies averaged N = 29 +/- 18 participants (range of N = 1055). Discuss the Strengths and Weaknesses of the Use of Animals for psychological Research. Finally, Rodriguez et al. When reporting statistical results, 78% of studies (21/27) provided estimates of variability for outcomes, including confidence intervals, standard deviations, or standard error of the mean. Unfortunately, many introductory textbooks dont give the full picture of animal research.
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