This means that the understanding of the role of the epigenome on the behavioral modifications driven by early experiences could contribute to our understanding of the relationship between childhood poverty and brain development. At the other extreme of the scale, advances in computing power are enabling researchers to create automated three-dimensional reconstructions of electron microscope slices of brain, albeit, in small volumes thus far, at molecular scale resolution.56, Regarding more clinically relevant imaging, the magnetic strength, and therefore resolution, of MRI machines continues to advance. (2013) examined differences in DNA methylation in adolescents for several genes (GR (NR3C1), dopamine receptor (DRD4), serotonin transporter (5HTT), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT), and dopamine transporter (DAT1)) in relation to their parents reports of hardship during childhood. the Neuroscience Perspective by bob joe - Prezi 75, 610615. Psychosom. Initial work focused on amygdala activity triggered by threatening and fear-inducing stimuli12 because these kinds of stimuli were widely available and evoked robust findings, thus earning the amygdala the reputation as the fear center of the brain. Lipina, S. J., and Posner, M. I. As I have already stated, problems arise when neuroevidence is incorrectly viewed as a confirmatory test, when in fact, it is best suited for use as a hypothesis generator. We will also finally get a good sense of the range of what brains in the general population look like and how they change over time. Neuroscience as a field is driven by our natural fascination with understanding how a physical organ, weighing three pounds and running on 20 watts of power, can give rise to the mind, and with it, our thoughts, feelings, soul, and identity. Hum. Some of the main questions currently included in the neuroscientific study of poverty focus on a number of topics already addressed by the fields of developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, and health sciences, especially those regarding the effects and mechanisms of mediation at the behavioral level of analysis (Bradley and Corwyn, 2002; Hackman and Farah, 2009; Moffitt et al., 2011; Evans et al., 2013). Sci. Although many conceptual and methodological issues should be explored, initial epigenetic findings support the notion that epigenetic changes underlie, at least partially, the long-term impact of early experiences, and that epigenetic alterations are potentially reversible or modifiable through pharmacological or behavioral intervention (Hensch, 2004). Neuroscience continues to experience stunning progress in several important areas. Moreover, the consideration of sensitive periods for many processes susceptible to different socioeconomic conditions and timing of intervention requires a revision of the agendas in other disciplines addressing childhood poverty (e.g., many disciplines currently contend that the impacts of economic and social deprivation are permanent and irreversible) (DAngiulli et al., 2012). Alfred Adler's Theories of Individual Psychology and Adlerian Therapy Natl. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1304437110, Noble, K. G., Houston, S. M., Kan, E., and Sowell, E. R. (2012). 6 Cognitive Psychology Strengths and Weaknesses Linking childhood poverty and cognition: environmental mediators of non-verbal executive control in an Argentine sample. Cognitive psychology--the study of how people think and process information--helps . doi: 10.1073/pnas.1320217111, Hackman, D. A., Betancourt, L. M., Brodsky, N. L., Hurt, H., and Farah, M. J. Like every theory, some people find the humanistic approach to be valid while others see it for the numerous inherent flaws. Although disk degeneration by itself is only poorly predictive of back pain,50 I think most would agree that the combination of the radiographic finding with the history makes the case much stronger. Further, even if abnormality could be established, the field currently lacks (with rare exceptions9) adequate studies that correlate qEEG signals with legally relevant functional impairments. (2014). Despite the effort it takes and the fraught nature of decision-making in which freedom, life, and treasure hang in the balance, that is the way it should be. Commentary: neurocognitive consequences of socioeconomic disparities. Neurosci. Evidence of the modulation of epigenetic mechanisms during early development in individuals growing under different rearing conditions (e.g., deprived SES, stress exposure) has recently been incorporated into this line of research. Sci. Strengths and weaknesses of biopsychology research - UKEssays.com The Science of How We Think. The neuroscientific study of child poverty is a topic that has only recently emerged. Six Major Psychological Theories: Strengths and Weaknesses Term Paper A strength of the biological approach is that it provides clear predictions, for example, about the effects of neurotransmitters or the behaviors of people who are genetically related. doi: 10.1037/a0024657, Crone, E. A., and Ridderinkhof, K. R. (2011). human cognition - came to the fore of psychological thought during the mid twentieth century, overlooking the stimulus-response focus of the behaviourist approach. Front. Neighborhood disadvantage and adolescent stress reactivity. Vulnerable Child. Neuropsychological testing, unlike neuroimaging for the purposes of cognitive assessment, is generally extensively validated and normed. 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More recently, these types of molecular genetic approaches are being increasingly used to examine the association between dopaminergic polymorphisms and educational achievement (e.g., Beaver et al., 2012). Removing brakes on adult brain plasticity: from molecular to behavioral interventions. Strengths and weaknesses both matter, and both are us. To find behavioral evidence that could corroborate or disconfirm the presence of cognitive impairment, the expert examined personal writings, journals, datebooks, calendars, checkbook records, and financial records for a three year period surrounding the time of the offense and concluded this analysis showed no evidence of impairment or change in his management of his everyday affairs (Ref. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0506897102, Segretin, M. S., Lipina, S. J., Hermida, M. J., Sheffield, T. D., Nelson, J. M., Espy, K. A., et al. For a hypothetical example, a group of 10 patients with strokes in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is compared with 10 healthy subjects on a test of impulse control and are found to differ on this measure. 5, p 470). 1, 101109. Individual and combined effects on childrens development. doi: 10.1016/j.dcn.2012.11.009, Essex, M. J., Boyce, W. T., Hertzman, C., Lam, L. L., Armstrong, J. M., Neumann, S. M., et al. Neurobiological pathways linking socioeconomic position and health. Nat. For instance, Bakermans-Kranenburg and van Ijzendoorn (2011) found that children with secure attachment representations donated more money to a charity (e.g., UNICEF) in the context of an attachment story completion task, only if they had the DRD4 7-repeat allele; and that children with less efficient dopamine-related genes (D2, DRD4, DAT1) had more adaptive difficulties in negative rearing environments. Dev. Leading this research in normal humans are the new techniques of functional brain imaging: positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). doi: 10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181e1a23c, Goldin, A. P., Hermida, M. J., Shalom, D. E., Elias Costa, M., Lopez-Rosenfeld, M., Segretin, M. S., et al. However, that theory has not yet been proved by brain research. Thus, it would be correct to say that activity in the amygdala may indicate the individual was experiencing fear. Also, recent behavioral studies have shown that sensitive periods are not necessarily fixed in terms of timing, and suggest that closure of these periods is likely to result from the natural consequence of a given learning process (Michel and Tayler, 2005). Three sets of problems have started to shape the direction of the research in this area: brain plasticity in prenatal development, reactivity of the amygdala to threatening situations, and brain changes associated with adverse life experiences (Gianaros and Manuck, 2010). (2012). Many different techniques are classified as psychophysiological. Psychol. The five major perspectives in psychology are biological, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive and humanistic. This devastating illness afflicts those inflamed by the fascinating new discoveries in the neurosciences, leading to a rationality-unhinging effect the final pathway, in all cases is that more legal implications are claimed for the brain science than can be justified (Ref. Neuroscience/Criticism - Wikiversity (2012). Neurosci. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.07.003, Rueda, M. R., Checa, P., and Cmbita, L. M. (2012). This question is for testing whether or not you are a human visitor and to prevent automated spam submissions. doi: 10.1111/desc.12087, Shonkoff, J. P., and Bales, S. N. (2011). The use, distribution and reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. Allostasis and the human brain: integrating models of stress from the social and life sciences. Neuroscience perspective is the study of the body's functional psychological processes, based on the activities of the neural and structural changes or alterations in the brain. 3, p 403). 23, 3952. I have participated in several of these cases in my early career and have seen enough to report that there is trouble afoot. U S A 102, 1493114936. When positive psychologists advocate a strengths-based approach, I hear it as an important . Enter multiple addresses on separate lines or separate them with commas. Overall the strengths and the weakness of the research methods adopted by cognitive neuroscientists discussed in my essay (TMS, CAT, PET and FMRI) had a variety of strengths and weaknesses. What makes us best suited for judging other people is that we are people. I remain hopeful, as does Bruer, that the indirect evidence from neuroimaging and other neuroscience research has the potential to suggest teaching strategies and environmental stimuli that are valuable for learning. Unlike behaviors, certain kinds of neuroimaging, such as structural MRIs, are not possible to fake, aside from deceptions like switching the films, and can thus allay malingering concerns. Med. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience in the Era of Networks and Big Although science may prove to be helpful in ascertaining behaviors and mental states, it will always be blind to the cultural and moral context needed to judge their appropriateness in a given situation. It can help researchers find ways to prevent or treat problems that . In other words, at this point, in most cases careful behavioral analysis continues to be more reliable than neuroimaging in ascertaining the relevant mental states, capacities, and behaviors that form the actual basis of legal criteria. (2005). However, as discussed above, neuroscience-based claims are limited by problems of reverse inference and group-to-individual inference and thus can rarely go beyond establishing that an impairment is plausible. (2013). Solved weakness Psychological Perspectives Comparison Key - Chegg Despite these important advances, the neuroscientific study of human poverty, particularly child poverty, is a topic that has gained attention in the most recent decades. This appears to have been the case in People v. Weinstein. Because the brain is such a dynamic organ, one cannot reliably reconstruct from a neuroscan the brain's function at the time of the index event. Behavioral evidence is the gold standard for determining functional impairment. Hearing ability depends on different degrees of environmental noise exposure (Zhou and Merzenich, 2012), and acoustic enrichment of the environment may promote recovery of auditory cortical processing (Zhu et al., 2014). When behavioral evidence conflicts with neuroimaging findings, in general the high percentage move will be to side with the behavioral, because neuroscience is so poor at predicting individual outcomes of brain defects. B., et al. Disadvantages. The other broad class of error that I frequently encounter involves faulty claims that ascribe functional impairments to localized brain defects in an individual. doi: 10.1016/S0079-6123(02)38074-9, Neville, H., Stevens, C., Pakulak, E., and Bell, T. A. Copyright 2023 by The American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law. Ct. 1992), Medical-legal inferences from functional neuroimaging evidence, Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013 (D.C. Cir. In this study, these theories will be . Neurosci. For example, I have found that neuroimaging findings can be useful in directing relevant follow-up neuropsychological testing and bringing attention to important behavioral details that might otherwise have been missed. (2009). Pubmed Abstract | Pubmed Full Text | Google Scholar, Gianaros, P. J., and Hackman, D. (2013). Some of the widely accepted psychological theories are the behavioral theories, the cognitive theories, humanist theories, biological theories, psychodynamic and the social psychology theories. I discuss two fundamental problems that limit the evidentiary utility of neuroscience-based claims: the problems of reverse inference and group-to-individual inference. Disclosures of financial or other potential conflicts of interest: None. Training developing brain: a neurocognitive perspective. Child Dev. Cogn. Genetic differences between individuals can result in widely divergent recruitment of brain areas for similar tasks. Lipina, S. J., and Colombo, J. doi: 10.1016/j.dcn.2011.09.004, Rueda, M. R., Rothbart, M. K., McCandliss, B. D., Saccamanno, L., and Posner, M. I. Predictors of cognitive enhancement after training in preschoolers from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds. Based on its location and size, it is plausible that Mr. Weinstein's cyst contributed to behavioral impairments and thus potentially is relevant to finders of fact, but because of biovariability, the neuroimages alone cannot establish whether he was impaired, nor can it establish, if impaired, to what extent the brain defect was a contributing cause. 34, 54065415. 16, 697707. The Role of the Biological Perspective in Psychology - Verywell Mind The case of Phineas Gage has been of huge interest in the field of psychology and is a largely speculated phenomena. Search. Strengths and Weaknesses of Cognitive Research Methods Psychol. Although neuroscience's proper role in the courts is limited by the problems mentioned above, I also believe that neuroscience evidence can be very useful. Am. 6:238. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00238, Lipina, S., Segretin, S., Hermida, J., Prats, L., Fracchia, C., Camelo, J. L., et al. (2013a). Strengths and weaknesses of biopsychology research. (2011). Forensic psychiatrists will be increasingly asked to opine on neuroevidence, and thus we must be able to distinguish neuroscience from neuro-nonsense. The developing brain: from theory to neuroimaging and back. Neurosci. A common error I encounter in the presentation of neuroevidence is the reverse-inference error. 6:277. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00277, Hackman, D. A., and Farah, M. J. They found that maternal stress in infancy predicted higher methylation levels in both girls and boys, but paternal stressors in preschool predicted differences in methylation at adolescence specifically in girls. The scientific nature of the approach is one worthy of discussing as it can be both a strength and weakness, as is its reductionist nature. She provides you with an extensive history of complaints and descriptions of functional limitations. Perspectives in Modern Psychology (Theoretical Approaches) This analysis is time-consuming and requires methodological innovations for the exploration of molecular pathways, systems and behavioral events, and phenomena simultaneously, and throughout the different stages of development (e.g., Rao et al., 2010). Thank you for your interest in recommending The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law site. In other words, although we may be guided by science in making moral decisions, ultimately they remain ours to make. Many legal decisions depend on accurate assessment of mental states and mental capacities (such as capacity for rationality or control over one's behaviors), and the hope is that neuroscience can shed light on these matters.
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